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Journal 2000
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Journal 2000 |
By: Jason C. and Jill M.
Birth
defects are generally divided into three categories. The first of these categories
is a single mutant gene, which is one defective unit of genetic material. Among
the well-known disorders caused by mutations of single genes are cystic fibrosis,
sickle cell anemia, and color blindness.
The second of these categories is chromosomal abnormalities, which
result from an excess or deficiency in genetic material. A person's cells have
either too few or too many chromosomes, or an abnormal arrangement of chromosomes.
Examples of chromosomal ab- normalities are Down Syndrome and Tay-Sachs disease.
The final category is multi-factorial disorders, which
are caused by the interaction of one or more abnormal genes with environmental
factors. The birth defects are thought to result from a fetus' genetic response
to react with environmental factors. These factors include drugs or alcohol
consumed by the mother or exposure to toxic chemicals. Birth defects include
Cleft Lip, Cleft Palate, and Spina Bifida, ( which are all examples of multi-factorial
disorders.
Cystic Fibrosis
A disorder in which the exocrine glands secrete abnormally thick mucus, leading to the obstruction of the pancreas and chronic infections in the lungs is Cystic Fibrosis. This disease usually causes death in childhood and early I adulthood. Cystic Fibrosis occurs once in every twenty-five I hundred births. The gene responsible for cystic fibrosis was identified on chromosome seven in 1989. If both parents have' the gene responsible for the disease, they have a one in four I chance of having an affected child.
Down Syndrome
A chromosomal disorder occurring in about one out of every 500 births, Down
Syndrome may produce
mild to severe learning disabilities and physical problems which include, a
small skull, extra folds of skin under the eyes, a flattened nose bridge, and
a large protruding tongue. Down Syndrome results when a person inherits all
or part of chromosome twenty one. The most common chromosomal abnormality that
causes Down Syndrome is trisomy 21, which is an extra third copy of chromosome
21 present on every
cell in the body. Problems in the future for Down Syndrome patients are heart
abnormalities, which may require surgery, as well as thyroid problems, which
usually can be treated.
Spina Bifida
A birth defect in which there is a failed closure of the vertebral
column during prenatal development. In the United States, Spina Bifida effects
about five percent of the population. Surgical treatment is almost always required.
If not surgically treated, infants die of infection or are severely disabled.
Women who take folic acid during the first six weeks of pregnancy can reduce
the chance of Spina Bifida. Spina Bifida can also be detected by increased level
of alphafeto protein during pregnancy, which can be tested for by amniocentesis.
Non genetic factors can also produce birth defects relating to the behavior
of the parents. Smoking cigarettes and drinking alcohol are two examples of
behavior, which can cause defects. Exposure to a variety of drugs and chemi-
cals can result in maternal infections like Rubella or Taxoplasmosis.
Rubella
When a pregnant mother has Rubella during pregnancy it can cause serious problems. The newborn child can be affected by abnormalities, such as heart defects, mental retardation, deafness, and cataracts. An attack of Rubella after the fourth month of pregnancy rarely causes problems. Women of child bearing age are advised to be immunized at least several months before anticipated pregnancy.
By: Jamie G. and Brian H.
Diabetes
mellitus is a metabolic disorder that inhibits glucose from permeating cell
walls. Its name is de- rived from the Greek word "diabetes", referring
to increased urine output and "mellitus", honey in Latin, referring
to the sweetness of the urine. This disease originates in the pan- creas, a
digestive organ as well as an endocrine gland. The pancreas is located in the
abdominal region, nestled behind the stomach and the liver. Its major function
is to control the body's sugar levels by secreting certain hormones from is
land-like structures called the Islets of Langerhans. More than 100,000 of these
Islets are scattered throughout the pancreas and serve as the endocrine portion
of this organ. Located in the Islets of Langerhans are three major types of
cells: beta cells, alpha cells, and delta cells. Beta cells se- crete insulin,
the hormone responsible for lowering the blood's glucose levels. Alpha cells
produce glucagon, a hormone that reverses the effects of insulin when needed.
Delta cells secrete somatostatin, a counter-regulatory hormone that limits glucose
transport to cells. Of all these hormones, insulin plays the biggest role.
There
are three types of diabetes: Type 1, Type 2, and gestational diabetes. In Type
1, the beta cells in the pancreas produce little or no insulin. Type 1 is often
referred to as 'juvenile diabetes" because it mainly occurs in children,
teens and young adults. It appears in both sexes, but is rare among African
Americans and Native Americans. Of all diabetes sufferers, only 10% have Type
1. This equates to approximately 1.4 million Americans. Scientists are not sure
of the exact cause of Type 1 diabetes. They do know that the beta cells are
destroyed in an autoimmune response. By mistake, the body's own immune system
attacks the beta cells as if they were antigens. Scientists feel possible causes
of the autoimmune response involve heredity or some stimula- tion from a viral
infection. Studies show that a child with a single Type 1 parent has a 5-10%
chance of developing the disease, and if both parents have Type 1 diabetes,
the risk rises to 20%. Symptoms include fatigue, constant hunger (polyphagia),
weight loss, frequent urination (polyuria), ex- cessive thirst (polydipsia),
and blurred vision. Since the beta cells do not function, people with this type
of diabetes are "insulin dependent", and require daily insulin injections
from a syringe or a pump to survive.
A very specific diet is needed to keep diabetes un- der control.
Some argue that the diabetics diet is the healthi- est diet ever. A current
approach to diet therapy is the use of exchange lists for meal planning created
by the American Diabetes Association. An exchange list provides the diabetic
with different food options that have equivalent nutritional value.
Together a healthy diet and insulin treatments protect !he diabetic against
disease related complications.
An exercise plan is also essential for the control of diabetes.
The body burns glucose when it exercises. There- fore, exercise is the simple
way to lower blood sugar. Some times a person with diabetes can reduce their
dosage of oral hypoglycemic agents or insulin requirements if they keep up a
regular exercise program. Other benefits include: improved insulin sensitivity,
promotion of weight loss, and reduction of cholesterol levels.
Another effective way of lowering blood glucose is by taking one
of the many types of oral hypoglycemic agents. Sulfonylureas lower blood sugar
levels by increasing the number and efficiency of insulin receptors on muscle
and fat cells. Metformin decreases the liver's capacity for producing glucose.
Acarbose delays the ab- sorption of carbohy- drates in the intestines.
There is a bright future for diabetic sufferers. Many of the goals
that scientists hope to achieve in the fields of gene therapy, vaccinations,
and transplantation are close to being achieved. Gene researchers have located
at least 18 genes that are linked to Type 1 diabetes. If found and decoded,
with gene therapy the onset of diabetes could potentially be eliminated. Researchers
have worked on an experimental vaccine that contains the GAD protein, a protein
that is thought to destroy the insulin producing cells in mice. This creates
the same affect as Type 1 diabetes. With luck, the vaccine will work and stop
autoimmune diabetes from start ing. Another alternative that has already been
tried is beta cell/pancreatic transplantation. Since the patient will need to
go on immunosuppressants, doctors will only do these transplantations if the
patient is also receiving a kidney trans- plant.
In summary, diabetes is a metabolic disorder that inhibits glucose
from permeating cell walls. This disease is marked by hyperglycemia that causes
many complications in a diabetic's body. However, if controlled through a disciplined
lifestyle, diabetes patients can lead relatively nor- mal and productive lives.
By: Jenna R. and Christina B.
The
cardiovascular system is the part of the circulatory system that includes the
heart and blood vessels. Its purpose is to move blood between the cells and
organs of the integumentary, digestive, respiratory, and urinary systems, which
communicate with the external environment. In doing this, the heart acts as
a pump that forces blood through the blood vessels. These blood vessels then
form a closed system of ducts that transport blood and allow the exchange of
gases, nutrients, and wastes between the blood and body cells.
Heart disease is the largest killer of people in the U.S., however
it has become one of the most carefully stud- ied health problems. More is known
about the causes and prevention of heart attacks than most other diseases that
kill us.
There are many causes of heart disease. Some of these causes can
be avoided, and others can not. Sometimes heart disease can come from a person's
genetics. A family's tendency toward heart disease is evaluated from the men
who had a heart attack before age 55 and women before 65. Because these are
considered premature heart attacks, they may reflect a genetically linked risk.
Males have a higher risk than females before age 55, and maintain a 10-year
disadvantage compared with women, until ages 75 or 80 when the risk equalizes.
Black Americans have more high blood pressure and diabetes than other ethnic
groups, putting them at higher risk for heart disease.
Of the 500,000 deaths from coronary artery disease each year,
between 20 and 40 percent (100,000-200,000) are directly related to smoking
tobacco. The benefits of quitting smoking are that the risk of getting heart
disease after about 5-10 years is the same as people who never smoked.
Reducing
the amount of fats in a person's diet helps to clear clogged arteries and control
cholesterol. Americans typically eat four times more fat than they need. Keeping
fats down, especially saturated fats, is one part of reducing cholesterol. Reducing
the intake of cholesterol-containing foods is crucial. When cholesterol is over
200 mg/dl, for each point that cholesterol is lowered, the risk of heart attack
is reduced by 2 percent.
Over 12 million Americans suffer from adult-on- set, non-insulin
dependent diabetes. Men with this condition have two to three times the risk
of heart disease, but women increase their heart disease risk from three to
seven times. Following the recommendations for preventing and reversing
heart disease can also help the body use blood sugars more efficiently, slowing
the onset and reducing the severity of diabetes.
When it is suspected that a patient has heart disease, there are
many symptoms that a doctor might look for. I Some of these symptoms include
pain, shortness of breath, fatigue, palpitations, light-headedness, and fainting.
There is usually a pain in the chest area that is often described to I feel
like a constant push.
There are many tests that can be done to diagnose heart disease.
These include a medical examination, exercise tolerance testing, electrocardiogram,
radiologic tests, I computed tomography, fluoroscopy, echocardiography, magnetic
resonance imaging, radionuclide imaging, position I emission tomography, cardiac
catheterization, and coronary angiography.
The exercise tolerance test is also known as a stress test. This
test is basically like an EKG that is taken while I the patient walks on a treadmill
or rides a stationary bicycle. t It is used to determine the heart's fitness.
The patient exercises to create a greater level of stress on the heart. Many
- patients with severe heart disease are unable to finish the s test because
of the accompanying pain. The stress test is I easy and relatively safe. Unfortunately,
it is sometimes in- I accurate, with a high rate of false positives (indicating
that heart disease is present when in fact it is not), especially among young
women. And there are high false negatives 1 (where heart disease is present
but undetected), especially in young men.
An electrocardiogram (EKG) measures the electrical activity of
the heart, detected by electrodes attached to
the chest. This information is displayed on a screen and usually printed out,
so that the doctor can evaluate the heart rate and rhythm. Different waves represent
electrical activity in different areas of the heart. An electrocardiogram can
t provide evidence of earlier heart attacks. Changes in wave-forms on the EKG
may alert the doctor to possible problems s with the heart that require more
detailed evaluation.
An echocardiogram is an ultrasound study that provides two-dimensional
imaging of the heart. It helps to ana- lyze the pumping action of the heart
by indicating blood flow and movement of the heart muscle. It can also show
the r motion of you valves, and help your doctor determine if the valves are
opening and closing properly.
Cardiac catheterization, also known as a coronary - angiogram,
refers to the X-ray visualization of heart anatomy - using a contrasting dye.
It involves the insertion of a cath- It eter, which is a long, thing, flexible,
tube. The catheter is inserted into an artery in the groin that is guided to
the heart. Special X-rays are used to guide the catheter and visualize the heart.
Dye is injected from the catheter into the coronary arteries to see if there
is any narrowing or blockage in the arteries. The doctor also evaluates the
pumping action of the heart and whether there are any problems with your heart
valves.
Adding fiber to one's diet can help reduce the risk of heart attack.
Foods that are fibrous include oats, beans, apples, squash, wheat bran, brussels
sprouts, green beans, strawberries, peaches, radishes, peppers, and many more.
Professor J.N. Morris was among the first to demonstrate the link between dietary
fiber and heart disease. He reported in 1977 that high-fiber diets reduced the
risk of coronary artery disease, even after taking other risk factors into ac-
count. Since then, this observation has been confirmed in more than 20 industrialized
countries around the world. In a 1982 Dutch study, men eating a low fiber diet
had four times more heart disease than men with a high fiber diet.
Believe it or not, fish can actually help reduce one's risk
of heart disease. Fish oils are unique. They are com- posed of long chain fatty
acids with 20 or more carbons linked together; as many as 6 carbons have empty
slots for hydro- gen, making them highly unsaturated. In fish oils, the final
empty hydrogen slot is located on the third carbon from the end of the chain;
that's why fish oils are called omega-3 fatty acids. These omega-3s lower LDL
(bad cholesterol) and raise HDL (good cholesterol. However, it takes very large
amounts of fish oil to improve cholesterol levels.
The human body produces a large number of en- zymes and
proteins that function as antioxidants. Antioxi- dants are molecules that neutralize
free radicals, which are electrically charged unstable molecules. The evidence
that free radicals and oxidized LDL cholesterol cause atheroscle- rosis is quite
secure, but the evidence that antioxidant vitamins can prevent atheroslcerosis
is just starting to accumulate. The only way to be sure that antioxidants can
help will be to conduct controlled clinical trials in which volunteers are randomly
assigned to receive antioxidants or placebo pills. This study will take years
to confIrm whether or not this is a successful method of preventing heart disease,
but it is still a possible solution to preventing heart disease.
Chromium supplements may help raise HDL cholesterol levels. Chromium's
role in cholesterol metabolism and atherosclerosis is just now being explored.
In a study with rats, chromium deficiencies increase the blood choles- terollevels,
and chromium supplements bring the choles- terollevels back down. Also, some
rats actually developed fatty plaques of atherosclerosis in their arteries as
a result of chromium deficiency. In another study by Dr. John Roeback and his
colleagues, the results were significant. Chromium supplements boosted HDL cholesterol
levels by an average of nearly 6 points, which is a 16 percent increase. No
changes occurred in total cholesterol, triglycerides, or body weight. All
the subjects were carefully monitored for side effects, ~ and none were observed.
This is certainly another method f for the prevention of heart disease.
Two more easy ways to help prevent the risk of heart disease is
to control stress and weight levels. Stress can lead to heart attacks, and so
the most high-powered people are at , the highest risk. Type A personalities
are rushed, impatient, , and are angry or frustrated easily. These traits increase
the risk of heart attacks by 300 percent. Controlling weight levels can also
reduce the risk of heart disease. Obesity promotes atherosclerosis. Excess body
fat contributes to all the '" major cardiac risk factors except smoking.
Obesi raises - LDL cholesterol and lowers HDL cholesterol. It increases 1 blood
pressure, discourages exercise, and adds to psycho- i logical stress. A 10 percent
gain in body weight increases s the risk of heart attack by about 25 percent.
There has been much debate about whether case fatality from
acute heart attack differs in women compared with men. Hospital-based data have
been inconclusive, how l ever only about 20% of coronary deaths occur in hospital
and there is no evidence of worse outcome in women from 1 population based data.
The absolute risk of coronary heart disease at any age, even after adjusting
for risk factors, is , about two to three time greater in men. However, coronary
heart disease is still the leading cause of death in women in ; industrialized
countries, and preventative measure need to be targeted at women as well as
men. Atherosclerosis
is the fancy term for "hardening of the arteries." Actually, the arteries
do not harden, but they
narrow. Excess fats and cholesterol can initate the inner t lining of arteries.
The many small injuries to the artery cause the arteries to begin to change
in a more permanent way. They attract blood-clotting elements to repair the
damage and stimulate growth of muscle cells, and eventually small scars begin
forming on the inside of the arteries. These scars ; are constantly exposed
to high level of fat and cholesterol,
and they begin to swell. Hundreds of these incidents result l in the collection
of plaque, which blocks the blood flow. Atherosclerosis does not just block
the arteries to the heart, it
can damage blood flow to other organs, causing them major destruction as well.
In conclusion, the heart is an extremely important ,
organ to keeping our bodies alive. Without its constant tire-
less pumping, our bodies would soon die. This is why it is so important to maintain
a healthy life style in order to keep the risks of heart disease low.
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of Page
By:
Allison M. and Ayga Soni
Most people are unaware of the alternatives to traditional medicine.
These are a few of them:
Acupuncture
Acupuncture
is a technique that has been practiced in China for nearly 4,500 years. The
practice became popu- larized in the United Sates in 1971, when journalist James
Reston published an article in the New York Times publiciz- ing the success
of acupuncture in treating his post-surgical pain. The belief behind acupuncture
is that a needle inserted in the right place, or acupoint, can en- hance the
flow of chi throughout the meridians.
There are currently 104 conditions that the World Health Or- ganization has
des- ignated treatable through acupunc- ture. These con- ditions range from
paralysis due to stroke to the com- mon cold. Other ailments commonly treated
with acu- puncture include chronic pain and arthritis. There are also studies
being performed on the ben- eficial affects of acupuncture on AIDS patients
and drug and alcohol addicts.
As with all TCMM techniques, a patient must first undergo a noninvasive examination
that includes inspection of demeanor, pulse and tongue. In Traditional Chinese
Medi- cine, the tongue is considered an excellent indicator ofbodily imbalances.
The tongue's color, texture, and moistness can all be used in a diagnosis. An
example of this is that a purple tongue an external symbol that the chi is not
flowing freely. After this examination, a brief questioning about the patient's
environment and lifestyle will take place. The inserting of hair thin acupuncture
needles at the appropriate acupoint fol- lows this. The needle is then spun.
Often times an electrical current is applied to the needle in order to increase
the effec- tiveness of the treatment.
Homeopathy
Homeopathic medicine is based on the idea that "like cures
like". This means that homeopaths believe that a small dose of what is
making you sick can cure you. This is known as the "law of similars."
Hippocrates, in ftfthcentury Greece, proposed this idea. During the1970's, German
physician, Samuel Hahnemann updated Hippocrates' philosophies. He was convinced
that by administering extremely dilute quantities of herbs a patient could be
cured of disease. Ironically, he discovered that the more dilute the substance,
the more potent it was. In order to test homeopathic remedies, they are administered
to well people, and their symptoms are observed.
Homeopathic medicine is used to treat a variety of conditions, but is
most effective on non-critical problems such as allergies and the flu. Currently
there is research to show that homeopathy is effective in the treatment of asthma,
arthritis, and acute childhood diarrhea.
Homeopathic medicine is administered in a variety of ways including
powders, tablets, and liquids. When taking homeopathic medicine in a tablet
or capsule form one must not touch the tablet. Instead it can be poured into
the mouth directly from the bottle. It is also recommended that a person avoid
eating or smelling and strong flavors such as mint or coffee during treatment.
A homeopathic remedy should only be taken as long as symptoms persist.
Aromatherapy
Aromatherapy is a technique which utilizes the healing powers
of plants in the form of oil. The practice of aromatherapy has been developed
over the centuries through the Egyptian, far Eastern, and Arab cultures. The
Egyptians used oils to embalm the dead. These oils were made by infusing herbs
into olive oil. This technique was updated in 1000 A.D by Arab physician Avicenna
who developed a new method for distilling herbs.
During the Middle Ages herbal oils were used for both
perfume and medicine. Aromatherapy is currently being used by medical doctors
in France.
Aromatherapy can be used to treat the common cold, asthma,
and digestive disorders. Aromatherapy is commonly used to treat emotional conditions
such as stress and anxiety.
Treatment:
An aromatherapist, or practitioner, will first take
a medical history that includes an examination of the skin. The practitioner
will then choose the appropriate oils. Oil will be prescribed to be taken orally,
rectally, or by inhala- tion or massage. The most common method of administering
oils is through Swedish massage. Massage allows oil molecules to pass through
the bloodstream into the nervous system. Massage can also alleviate tension
and improve circulation.